CONFLICT

Conflict

A conflict exists when two people wish to carry out acts which are mutually inconsistent. They may both want to do the same thing, such as eat the same apple, or they may want to do different things where the different things are mutually incompatible, such as when they both want to stay together but one wants to go to the cinema and the other to stay at home. A conflict is resolved when some mutually compatible set of actions is worked out.

conflicts, also called group intrigues, is where social behaviour causes groups of individuals to conflict with each other. It can also refer to a conflict within these groups. This conflict is often caused by differences in social norms, values, and religion.

Both constructive and destructive conflict occurs in most small groups. It is very important to accentuate the constructive conflict and minimize the destructive conflict. Conflict is bound to happen, but if we use it constructively then it need not be a bad thing.

When destructive conflict is used in small groups, it is counterproductive to the long term goal. It is much like poisoning the goose that lays the golden eggs. In the case of small group communication, destructive conflict creates hostility between the members. This poisons group synergy and the results, the golden eggs if you will, either cease being produced or are at least inferior in quality.

Using constructive conflict within small groups has the opposite effect. It is much like nourishing the goose so that it continues to produce the golden eggs, golden eggs which may be even better than what the unnourished goose could have produced. In this sense, bringing up problems and alternative solutions while still valuing others in small groups allows the group to work forward.

How conflicts arise

When you consider what a diverse society we live in, with so many different backgrounds, perspectives and approaches to life, it is not surprising that conflict is established as part and parcel of our everyday life. This is because people will have competing interests and competing perspectives in relation to the same issues, and so we should not be surprised when tensions exist between individuals and groups. The idea of ever achieving a society with no conflict is clearly a pipedream. However, this is not necessarily a problem, as conflict can also be creative and constructive. Many important changes in our society and in the organisations in which we work have occurred as a result of conflicts. The important question, then, is not so much: 'How do we create a world without conflict?', but, rather: 'How do we manage conflict as constructively and positively as we possibly can?'.

Conflict is concerned with difference. If we were all the same, then there would be little or no conflict. However, thankfully we are not all the same, and so part of the price that we pay for the richness of diversity is that conflicts will arise at certain times. Conflict can be seen to arise from the incompatibility of aims between individuals and/or groups - that is, what I am trying to achieve and what you are trying to achieve. If they are significantly different, they can lead us into conflict. Two main problems can arise there. First, we may feel uneasy about the conflict and the tensions that it raises, and therefore try to pretend it is not there, to fudge the issue or brush it under the carpet. This can lead to significant problems in so far as the situation may be allowed to fester and go on for a much longer period than is necessary if we are not prepared to deal with it and move on. Second, we may cause problems by dealing with the conflict in a way which escalates the tensions between us. For example, rather than deal with any conflicts between us constructively and amicably, we may use the opportunity to attack one another, thereby leading to unnecessary additional problems. These, then, are the two main (but not only) problems associated with conflict: fudging and escalation.

The short answer to the question of what causes conflict is quite simply, life. Bringing people together in social interaction necessarily involves a set of interpersonal dynamics which sooner or later will lead to conflict. It is for this reason that we have to learn to deal with conflict, rather than simply hope that it will not get in the way of our plans and our dealings with other people. The time and effort involved in learning how to deal with conflict positively and constructively are therefore an important and worthwhile investment of our personal (and organisational) resources. We should be wary of making the common mistake of assuming that conflict is necessarily a problem and is something to be avoided at all costs. That is far too simplistic an approach to the complex subject of conflict management.

Group Behavior

Group Behavior

Group Behavior in sociology refers to the situations where people interact in large or small groups. The field of group dynamics deals with small groups that may reach consensus and act in a coordinated way. Groups of a large number of people in a given area may act simultaneously to achieve a goal that differs from what individuals would do acting alone (herd behaviour). A large group (a crowd or mob) is likely to show examples of group behaviour when people gathered in a given place and time act in a similar way—for example, joining a march,

Defining Characteristics of Groups -:

Currently there is not a universal definition of what constitutes a group. Groups can have varying numbers of members, communication styles, and structures. Research has identified a few common requirements contributing to the recognition of individuals working in a collaborative environment to be considered a “group”:

Interdependence: In order for an individual of the collective to accomplish their part in the assigned task they depend, to some degree, on the outputs of other members of the collective.

Social Interaction: In order to accomplish the goal some form of verbal or nonverbal communication is required to take place amongst the members of the collective.

Perception of a Group: All members of the collective must agree they are, in fact, part of a group.

Commonality of Purpose: All the members of the collective come together to serve or attain a common goal.

Some researchers suggest additional characteristics need to be identified in order for a collective of individuals to be categorized as a group such as: working the same shifts, shared physical work locations, and reporting to the same manager. However the commonalities of the multiple definitions reviewed suggest that the definition of a group is based on the interdependence of people who come together to accomplish a common goal.

Stages of Group Development

Group development focuses on the somewhat unique way groups are formed and the manner in which they may change over time. There are a variety of development theories and some suggest that groups develop through a series of phases culminating in effective performance.The most common of these models is Tuckman’s (1965) Stage Model. It breaks group development into the following five stages:

Forming: As the group convenes, conflict is usually low to non-existent as everyone tries to determine their individual role and the personalities of fellow team members. This stage is often marked by agreeable neutrality while the group takes form and begins to navigate the unknown.

Storming: Storming occurs after the group overcomes the sense of uncertainty and begins to actively explore roles and boundaries. Chaos, pronounced efforts to influence others, and instances of conflict and/or enthusiasm are common.

Norming: Norming in groups indicate that norms and role ownership are emerging. Generally this means that conflict and chaos is decreasing or has ended.

Performing: Originally noted as the final stage, performing occurs when the team completes their primary task(s). Adjourning: Tuckman (1977) refined the model to include a fifth stage to address how the group begins to disengage and move on to new tasks potentially beyond the team.

OD interventions

"Interventions" are principal learning processes in the "action" stage (see Figure 1) of organization development. Interventions are structured activities used individually or in combination by the members of a client system to improve their social or task performance. They may be introduced by a change agent as part of an improvement program, or they may be used by the client following a program to check on the state of the organization's health, or to effect necessary changes in its own behavior. "Structured activities" mean such diverse procedures as experiential exercises, questionnaires, attitude surveys, interviews, relevant group discussions, and even lunchtime meetings between the change agent and a member of the client organization. Every action that influences an organization's improvement program in a change agent-client system relationship can be said to be an intervention.

There are many possible intervention strategies from which to choose. Several assumptions about the nature and functioning of organizations are made in the choice of a particular strategy. Beckhard lists six such assumptions:

1) The basic building blocks of an organization are groups (teams). Therefore, the basic units of change are groups, not individuals.

2) An always relevant change goal is the reduction of inappropriate competition between parts of the organization and the development of a more collaborative condition.

3) Decision making in a healthy organization is located where the information sources are, rather than in a particular role or level of hierarchy.

4) Organizations, subunits of organizations, and individuals continuously manage their affairs against goals. Controls are interim measurements, not the basis of managerial strategy.

5) One goal of a healthy organization is to develop generally open communication, mutual trust, and confidence between and across levels.

6) People support what they help create. People affected by a change must be allowed active participation and a sense of ownership in the planning and conduct of the change.

           Interventions range from those designed to improve the effectiveness of individuals through those designed to deal with teams and groups, intergroup relations, and the total organization. There are interventions that focus on task issues (what people do), and those that focus on process issues (how people go about doing it). Finally, interventions may be roughly classified according to which change mechanism they tend to emphasize: for example, feedback, awareness of changing cultural norms, interaction and communication, conflict, and education through either new knowledge or skill practice

Change agent

Change agent
A change agent in the sense used here is not a technical expert skilled in such functional areas as accounting, production, or finance. S/he is a behavioral scientist who knows how to get people in an organization involved in solving their own problems. His/her main strength is a comprehensive knowledge of human behavior, supported by a number of intervention techniques (to be discussed later). The change agent can be either external or internal to the organization. An internal change agent is usually a staff person who has expertise in the behavioral sciences and in the intervention technology of OD.

Contractual relationship
Although neither the sponsoring organization nor the change agent can be sure at the outset of the exact nature of the problem or problems to be dealt with or how long the change agents' help will be needed, it is essential that some tentative agreement on these matters be reached. The sponsoring organization needs to know generally what the change agent's preliminary plan is, what its own commitments are in relation to personal commitments and responsibility for the program, and what the change agent's fee will be. The change agent must assure himself that the organization's, and particularly the top executives', commitment to change is strong enough to support the kind of self-analysis and personal involvement requisite to success of the program. Recognizing the uncertainties lying ahead on both sides, a termination agreement permitting either side to withdraw at any time is usually included

Organization Development

Organization development (OD) is a conceptual, organization-wide effort to increase an organization's effectiveness and viability. Warren Bennis has referred to OD as a response to change, a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of an organization so that it can better adapt to new technologies, markets, challenges, and the dizzying rate of change itself. OD is neither "anything done to better an organization" nor is it "the training function of the organization"; it is a particular kind of change process designed to bring about a particular kind of end result. OD can involve interventions in the organization's "processes," using behavioural science knowledge[1] organizational reflection, system improvement, planning and self-analysis.

At the core of OD is the program of organization, defined as two or more people working together toward one or more shared goal(s). Development in this context refers to the process by which an organization becomes more effective over time at achieving its goals.

OD is a long range effort to improve organization's problem solving and renewal processes, particularly through more effective and collaborative management of organizational culture, often with the assistance of a change agent or catalyst and the use of the theory and technology of applied behavioral science. Although behavioral science has provided the basic foundation for the study and practice of organizational development, new and emerging fields of study have made their presence known. Experts in systems thinking, leadership studies, organizational leadership, and organizational learning (to name a few) whose perspective is not steeped in just the behavioral sciences, but a much more multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary approach have emerged as OD catalysts. These emergent expert perspectives see the organization as the holistic interplay of a number of systems that impact the process and outputs of the entire organization. More importantly, the term change agent or catalyst is synonymous with the notion of a leader who is engaged in leadership - a transformative or effectiveness process - as opposed to management, a more incremental or efficiency based change methodology.

Organization development is a "contractual relationship between a change agent and a sponsoring organization entered into for the purpose of using applied behavioral science and or other organizational change perspectives in a systems context to improve organizational performance and the capacity of the organization to improve itself".[citation needed]

Organization development is an ongoing, systematic process to implement effective change in an organization. Organization development is known as both a field of applied behavioral science focused on understanding and managing organizational change and as a field of scientific study and inquiry. It is interdisciplinary in nature and draws on sociology, psychology, and theories of motivation, learning, and personality. Organization development is a growing field that is responsive to many new approaches including Positive Adult Development.

O.B

Organizational behaviour

Organizational studies, sometimes known as organizational science, encompass the systematic study and careful application of knowledge about how people act within organizations. Organizational studies sometimes is considered a sister field for, or overarching designation that includes, the following disciplines: industrial and organizational psychology, organizational behavior, human resources, and management. However, there is no universally accepted classification system for such subfields.

Whenever people interact in organizations, many factors come into play. Modern organizational studies attempt to understand and model these factors